Respond to the discussion about Aristotle (for online Essay

Respond to the discussion about Aristotle (for online class-introduction to Ethics) - Essay Example There is nothing we can call as â€Å"ultimate† goal. 2. I disagree with you when you visualize Aristotle’s opinion as belonging to a different time frame i.e. Greek. I think what he is talking about is one of the most fundamental realities of life that never change with time. However, I completely agree with you when you refer to the â€Å"proper function† as â€Å"a higher fulfillment of life†. There is no such think as â€Å"perfect† in this world. But we tend to achieve the maximum in the effort of achieving the perfection. Everything has a room for improvement, and therefore, â€Å"proper function† should always be visualized as something â€Å"higher†. 3. You have made a good attempt to interpret Aristotle’s meaning of â€Å"proper function†, though I have slight reservations in accepting particularly when you say that â€Å"everything that we as human beings aim at is good†. That is not always the case. What about the robbers and serial killers who aim at killing people for their personal benefits? When we generalize certain facts for all members of the society, we need to be watchful of all members who positively â€Å"and† negatively affect the society. 4.

Creation of American Tradition Essay Example for Free

Creation of American Tradition Essay Folklore was first utilized by William Thoms, an English antiquarian in 1846, which is defined as a body of expressive culture such as music, tales, dance, oral history, legends, customs, traditions, rituals, popular beliefs, jokes and many more within a specific population comprising the traditions of the culture, group or sub-culture (Georges, 1995). Traditions are standards or principle revered and followed by people from generation to generation which come from a Latin word traditio meaning to’ hand over’ or to ‘hand down’, and is utilized in many ways in the English Language such as customs or beliefs educated by one generation to the other which is often orally, a complex movement in religion composed of church bodies or religious denominations which have common customs, history, culture like in Islam’s Sufi tradition, and lastly, or a set of practices or customs like Christmas traditions ad the likes. Tradition is also defined as a custom, or a practice that is remembered and transferred down from one generation to the other generation and is initially without the necessity for a writing system. Traditions are mostly primeval, deeply essential, and unchangeable, but it may sometimes less normal than is expected, and some traditions were forcibly made for one or another which is often to enhance a certain institution’s importance, and it is also said to be or may also be changed to go with the necessity for the day, and can become accepted as an ancient tradition’s part. Some traditions disappear while some are altered or changed to suit to what is acceptable. Tradition could be conceptualized as repetition across space as well as time (Bronner, 2002). Appropriate to the emergence of a genuine, renewable folklore, the feature of space allowed for an oral tradition that had moved across the landscape, even in one generation, rather than having persisted through many (Bronner, 2002). Rituals are a set of actions which is often thought to have a symbolic value and the routine of which is commonly prescribed by traditions or by a religion of a community by political or religious laws. Rituals may be done on specific occasions, or on regular intervals, or at the judgment of communities or individuals which may be performed by a group, a single individual, or by the whole community in places specially allocated for it such as in private or in public, or before specific persons. Rituals purpose varies and they include satisfaction of emotional or spiritual need of the practitioner, compliance with religious ideals or obligations, strengthening of social bonds, stating one’s affiliation, demonstration of submission or respect, having approval or acceptance for some event, or for the pleasure on the ritual. Rituals are of many kinds and are always a feature of all human societies, including activities that are performed for solid purposes, or even saying hi or hello or hand-shaking. Systems of myth, rituals, feast, sacred customs, games, songs, tales, exist in such profusion that volumes would be required to contain the lore of each separate tribe (Bronner, 2002). As the verbal form used for naming these rituals suggest, which could be translated as the action of the heart, these rituals aim to acquire enhancement in the perception capacities attributed to this organ in order to confront life’s challenges. The most widely distributed rituals mark basic and irreversible turning points in life common to men everywhere. Without distinction of race or creed people everywhere are born, grow maturity, and eventually die. So universally we find birth and naming rituals, rituals marking the attainment of adulthood, weddings and funerals. Here, put at its simplest, we can see the rituals oils the wheels of life as the individual moves through the human life cycle from the cradle to grave (Lewis, 2003). References Bronner, S. J. (2002). FolkNation: Folklore In the Creation of American Tradition. New York: Rowman Littlefield. Georges, R. A. , Jones, M. O. (1995). Folkloristics: An Introduction. New York: Indiana University Press. Lewis, I. M. (2003). Social Cultural Anthropology in Perspective. New York: Transactions Publishers.

Advantages and disadvantages of implementing TQM

Advantages and disadvantages of implementing TQM The topic for the study is advantages and disadvantages of implementing TQM as a precursor to ISO 9000 and vice versa. The sector taken for the study is petrochemical industries and the country chosen is UK. The papers scope of analysis extends to the current position of this industry and the challenges faced by it. The study has attempted to make an in depth discussion about the advantages of implementing quality concepts in petrochemical industry. The pros and cons entailing due to the implementation of TQM and ISO 9000 are also explained. Performance standard for each activity increases the overall performance of organizations in this sector. Therefore, it is essential for every organization to implement any of the quality concepts, so that it will enable it to manufacture and distribute quality products. Introduction: In this modern world, which fast changing, most of the organizations are coming up with new strategies to attract their customers. Nowadays, consumers have become totally aware of the quality of products and services delivered by the organizations. There was a wrong belief that the quality concerns only products but not service. But later the perspective has changed. managers perspectives on its possible effect on company performance are not positive product quality that will be improvised after the implementation (Costa 2004, p.1). The customers always demand good quality for the products and services for which they pay. Due to this, the use of quality concept has become an important criterion for both manufacturing and service industries across the world. Maintaining quality for the products and services is not an easy task for all organizations. Product and service quality is the central part of all the organization that leads to the accomplishment of the organizational goals and objectives. For sustaining quality within the organization, some quality concepts are required to be implemented. These concepts are implemented in the organization to boost the overall efficiency of the company in a qualitative manner. There are many quality concepts that can be implemented for this purpose. Among various quality concepts, the most important concepts are total quality management system and ISO 9000. Maintaining quality in the overall work progress has envisaged the petrochemical industries to emphasise more on quality of the products and services that they deliver. Quality management system is an important criteria that have to be given due consideration in the every operation of any business. The design and implementation of a quality management system will vary depending on the type, size and products of the organisation (ISO 9001:2000 quality management system n.d.). Quality management standards promote the adoption of a process approach when developing, implementing and improving the effectiveness of a quality management system, to enhance customer satisfaction by meeting customer requirements (Quality management systems requirements for service quality by public service organization 2005, p.2). To recapitulate, the industries taken for the current study is petrochemical industry in UK. Due to the slowdown in the global market economy in the year 2009, there was a huge decline in the demand for the products manufactured by the petrochemical industry. The petrochemical industry of today is an indispensable part of the manufacturing and consuming sectors, churning out products which include paint, plastic, rubber, detergents, dyes, fertilizers, textiles, and even solvents.  (Analyzing the global petrochemical industry, 2009, para.1). The top ten petrochemical industries in the world are as follows: BASF (Germany) Dow Chemical (USA) ExxonMobil Chemical (USA) LyondellBasell Industries (Netherlands) INEOS (UK) Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (Saudi Arabia) Formosa Plastics Corporation (Taiwan) Sumitomo Chemical (Japan) DuPont (USA) Chevron Phillips (USA). (Baxter, 2009, para.7). As far as petrochemical industry in UK is concerned, maintaining quality is an important aspect. To achieve this objective in all spheres of work processes in petrochemical industry, various quality concepts have been implemented in these organizations. Among these the concept which has created an overall progress for this sector is the concept of Total Quality Management (TQM) and ISO 9000. TQM is considered as a holistic and systematic approach that provides quality management for the petrochemical industry in United Kingdom. It is an integrated management philosophy which continuously focuses on improving the quality performance of the products, processes and services that are delivered by the organizations to meet the customers requirements and enhance customer satisfaction and there y retaining their loyalty towards the organization. TQM is a management philosophy that seeks to integrate all organizational functions (marketing, finance, design, engineering, and production, customer service, etc.) to focus on meeting customer needs and organizational objectives. (Hashmi, 2009, para.4). ISO 9000 is a group of standards which is mainly implemented in an organization to improve the overall efficiency and to effectively enable the maintenance of quality management system within the organization. In the earlier days, this was meant for only those organizations which were engaged in international trade. ISO 9000 can help a company satisfy its customers, meet regulatory requirements and achieve continual improvement. (ISO 9000 and other standards, n.d., para.4).   ISO 9000 series is composed of ISO 9000:2005, ISO 9001:2008, ISO 9004:2008 and ISO 9004:2009. There is a specific ISO standard for every industry. ISO/TS 20091 is a specific quality management system which includes the requirements related to design, production, development, installing and delivering the services related to the products that are manufactured by the petrochemical industry. Current scenario of global Petrochemical industries: As the name suggests petrochemicals are certain chemicals which are obtained from cracking of petroleum feedstock. These petrochemicals are mainly used in manufacturing fields. Petrochemical industry is considered to be one of the fast growing sectors in the world. It not only plays a crucial role in meeting the daily needs of the common man, but also contributes significantly towards industrial and economic growth of the nation (Introduction 2008). The petrochemical industry of today is an indispensable part of the manufacturing and consuming sectors (Analyzing the global petrochemical industry 2009). Quality is defined by international standards ISO 8402 as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs (Mariojouls n.d., p.1). As far as petrochemical industries are concerned, quality plays a significant role in the overall functioning. Recession is precipitating a long-term decline in the British petrochemicals industry, with producers cutting and consolidating capacity in 2009, according to BMIs latest UK Petrochemicals Report (United Kingdom Petrochemicals report Q1 2010 2009). Petrochemical industry being fastest growing industry with an estimate nearly US$2.4 trillion, there is an absolute necessity within the business to ensure and sustain customer satisfaction. Despite of many challenges from environment protection standards and high rate in crude oil prices, it is still maintaining higher rate in overall manufacturing segment. As per industry reports the pharmaceutical segment contributes approximately 26% of the total industry output and approx. 35-40% is dominated by the petrochemical segment (Global Scenario 2008). Commodity chemicals is said to be one of the largest segment in this industry with approximate turnover of $750 billion while fine chemicals constitute $500 billion. The major markets are widely spread all over the globe which include Japan, Western sides of Europe, North America and also Asia and Latin American countries. However, United States consumes almost one-fifth of the chemical production while Europe consumes only half of the sa id volume. In petrochemical industry the process of petrochemical production consists of two stages. In the first stage naphtha, produced by refining crude oil or natural gas is used as a feedstock and is cracked. Cracking (breaking of long chain of hydrocarbon molecule) produces olefins and aromatics. In stage two, these building blocks are polymerized (made to undergo chemical processes) to produce downstream petrochemical products (polymers, polyesters, fibre intermediaries and other industrial chemicals (Petrochemicals 2009). The nature of the petrochemical industry is cyclical. In case of petrochemical supply industries, Middle East region is considered to be very rich in oil fields and reserves and it has been developing newer complexes for petrochemicals. The huge capacity of these countries fulfills their domestic demand. In case of demand side it is Asia, particularly China that more and more demands are coming. These two factors changed the supply-demand scenario of global petrochemic al industries over the last two decades. The US petrochemical industry has remained volatile between up and down trends in the last few years and also present situation is no different. The US petrochemical industry has traveled through different phases in their life cycle from their initial phase till the present. The US petrochemical industry faces many slumps in their production because of high feedstock prices. The rising of feedstock prices has put the giant petrochemical industry of US on back foot over other main rivalries. Because of this investment reduced in the US petrochemical industry. This caused considerable unsteadiness in the market. The result was that US petrochemical was in a stagnated position and the future of the petrochemical industry in United States seems back. In the case of Middle East, petrochemical industries are accessing to cheap and copious feedstock and more overly they are producing larger quantities from their petrochemical industry. Besides large scale investment continues in the sector which results in favourable condition for Middle East countries. Apart from this, China being the country whose intake is quite large, the market is encouraging. Thus, Middle East did not worry about the market condition at all. Apart from this, rules, regulations and protocols present in this country are very simple which poses no problem in doing steady business. By 2015, it is said that Middle East countries will surpass the European countries in terms of ethylene capacity. The region is estimated to account for about 20% of world ethylene capacity, against 17% share of Europe (US petrochemical industry takes a backseat in global supply- demand 2003). Middle East is targeting China as their potential market where there is a huge demand for oil always exists. Middle East is expecting the demand of around nine percentages every year in China while comparing with other countries. Importance of TQM and ISO in petrochemical industries:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  TQM and ISO 9000 are two very important topics in connection to quality of a product. The idea of TQM is based on a transformation from the management process based on outcomes to a management process based on the improvement of quality. ISO 9000 is very important in determining the quality of a product. TQM is concerned with making sure that the company does the right thing and ISO 9000 deals with whether all the things are done right in the company. Researches had shown that TQM and ISO 9000 concepts are used in most of the petrochemical industries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  TQM is important because it enhances the existing methods of business. It also improves the product and service quality which will be help in the existence of the product for a long time. TQM is now used not only in manufacturing activities but also it is used as a general management tool. Total quality management decides the level of quality of the things in the petrochemical industry. It determines the characteristics of a thing. The quality of the products in the industry will attract customers towards it. TQM is not only limited to product quality improvement but also widely cover aspects of quality in service sector too. TQM in India more than manufacturing, it is the service sector that took its time to recognize the importance of TQM (Managing quality in organization 2010). TQM is focused on improving the quality of products in the petrochemical industries. The companies can fully take actions to the customers hopes with the help of TQM.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ISO 9000 standard determines the quality of a product.  Standards like  ISO  9000 are important for the success of any organization. Petrochemical organizations have recognized the importance of ISO 9000 certification for the growth of their business. The standard is important because of the benefit of it in marketing and sales, due to its value etc. ISO 9000 is important in the first instance because it gives organizations some guidance on how to manage for quality. Secondly, mechanisms exist by which an organization can be certified for conforming to ISO 9000 specifications (Rada 1994). Its characteristics are different from the other standards of engineering. In other words ISO 9000 is unique. These standards can help in the progress of the business processes of a company. It also helps to add value to the business. The sales of the industry can be increased by attaining ISO 9000 standards. It meets the requirements of the customer which leads to cust omer satisfaction. ISO 9000 helps the petrochemical industry to react to the needs of the customers in agreement with the standards and costs. The rules of ISO 9000 offer a complete model for the management of quality. It can make the petrochemical industries competitive. The motivation of the staffs can be improved with the help of ISO standards. It can encourage trade at the global level. It is also a method to add profits to the industry. The productivity of the industry is increased with the help of ISO 9000. The petrochemical industries can use it as a standard that will help to evaluate the effectiveness of its quality. A petrochemical industry with ISO 9000 can sell its products at an improved rate. It can claim that their products have been the outcome of a procedure that frequently examine for quality. ISO 9000 standard helps the petrochemical industries to attain the quality standards that are accepted all over the world.   Since the standard is accepted internationally, for the industries doing international business consider it as a reasonable option. It will also be a good option for customers who want products of international quality.  By using ISO 9000, industries can recognize the cause of the difficulties and hence discover a solution for it. A reliable supply chain can be produced using ISO 9000. The importance of TQM and ISO 9000 has encouraged the petrochemical industries to apply them in their business. Problem faced by Petrochemical industry: Quality plays a significant role in the development and success of any organization or product. UK is recognized as a core of the creation of petrochemical and other associated products of petrochemical. There is high demand for this product all over the world; so quality assurance and quality management are very important in petrochemical industry in order to exist in the global economy. There are many petrochemical industries in this country and millions of people are working in these industries. Even though this sector is the major source of economic growth, the industry is facing some problems regarding quality management and quality assurance. The main challenges faced by the petrochemical industry are the need to manage the commercial environment better and as a minimum to stop worsening the industrys inherent cyclicality the need for further restructuring in order to improve underlying performance and the need to improve relationships with the outside world because crucially these relationships increasingly will determine the scope for success in our industry (Grote, 2001, para.5). During the production process they are not fully utilizing the resources and they are not aware about the recycling of the waste products. The rate of manufacturing the petrochemical products is very high; so the wastage of resources is causing great loss of profit for them. The petrochemical industry like BP did not implement the latest technology and methods to improve the activities in the production procedure and to improve the performance of the workers. Due to lack of the latest technologies, they could not increase the quantity and quality of products and also could not provide the customers requirements properly. So, in order to overcome such problems, they introduced quality management techniques like TQM and ISO 9000 standard. The financial crisis for the past few years has affected the running of the petrochemical industries. Increase in the price of the resources decreased the production of these industries. Moreover as they are aware of recycling the waste resources there is vast wastage of the resources. The petrochemical products are used for a number of purposes therefore the lack of quality decreases the sale of their products. This has totally caused to the financial status of the petrochemical industries. The resources for the production of the petrochemicals products are not available in sufficient manner. The chemical plants are been abolished due to environmental contamination like pollution, smoke stacks etc. usage of the traditional methods in the production process decreased the quantity and quality of their products. It is taking more time for the production process as they are following the traditional methods. According to the invention of the latest technologies these organisations did n ot implemented the latest technologies in their business activities. Therefore they fail to reach with the other petrochemical industries in other nation. Proper training is not given to the employees to improve the performance of the employees moreover they are aware in handling the latest tools and techniques. The decrease in quantity of the petrochemical products does not accomplish the need of all the customers so this is affecting the whole reputation of these industries. Deficient in attaining the customer satisfaction of their products they are not able to compete with the petrochemical industries in other countries. For the achievement of success of any business there need a good relationship with the other countries in order to increase the sale of their product. But in the case of petrochemical industries this country is not keeping a good relationship with the outside world therefore the sale of their products has decreased. Implementation of TQM as a precursor to ISO 9000 and vice versa: The petrochemical industries are those involved in the manufacturing of toxic chemicals and organic compounds which can affect the people when not maintained properly. Quality assessment and quality standard implementation should be done from the start up of production to the final despatch of the product for customer satisfaction and for the maintenance of quality system. The petrochemical industry should also comply with the requirements of occupational health and safety management systems which deal with the precautions on health and environmental factors. This is applicable to all chemical industries. Implementation model: (Implement- from quality to organisational excellence, n.d., p.1). The implementation of quality factors starts with the vision and mission of the company, the vision are the future view of the company; the mission are the goals in terms of quality products, customer satisfaction and the profit which they want to achieve. The statements should be clear and spontaneous. CSF/KPI: The critical factors for successful implementation are the building blocks for the success and those identified factors that affect in the implementation by analyzing of the past data and the modification to be done in implementing the new standards. They identify the key performance indicators like the employees, resources like plant and machinery, innovation etc. Encouraging new ideas and technology, discarding obsolete ones etc contribute to the success in the implementation; they monitor the performance and report the progress and the feedback for the organizations well being. Core process: The core business processes are the profit rearing segments of the business and they consist of suppliers, process and the customers. The quality implementations create a major impact on the core process and the competitive advantage when the implementation of the TQM is done in the business process. Defining of the business opportunity: Quality implementation is done mainly for increasing the reputation of the company. The company must be against the acceptance of any kind of compromise in the product quality which affects the company and its reputation in the market. To make the situation at an ease and conducting a review to identify the particular need and the specification of the customer and the company and the analyzing whether the required standard is met or not, this becomes the method for getting a better business opportunity. The ISO 9000: This is an important tool for the implementation of TQM. This is a general name given to the list of quality standards. The main aim of these quality standards is to provide the company with the standard products and to make the company a profit oriented and highly reputed. The brainstorming of the ideas is given a good place for the implementation. They help in several ideas generated by the people and the product analysis and the performing of the functions according to the effectiveness of the customer satisfaction and the major role in the quality assessment criteria and to enhance the company position, reputation and profitability. Decision making by the management and the implementation to be done by the different standards and the performance of them are monitored continuously, and the demerits in the performance are identified and continuous improvement is done by providing adequate training and development. ISO 9000 series is a quality management system that has to be maintained in an organization. This means what the organization does to fulfil: the customers quality requirements, and applicable regulatory requirements, while aiming to enhance customer satisfaction, and achieve continual improvement of its performance in pursuit of these objectives (ISO 9000 and ISO14000 2010). The idea of improvement in implementing TQM by the companies is to have the accreditation, proper dealing with the customer for the certification for the business and exports to be done to other countries and also to increase the position and profit of the company. Advantages of implementing TQM as a precursor to ISO 9000 and vice versa: The ISO 9000 and TQM are two main subjects that are used to show the quality of an industry. Although fundamentally different TQM ensures organizations do the right thing, while ISO 9000 is about doing things right. (Exhibit: An introduction to ISO 9000 TQM, 1999, p.2). There are many advantages in implementing TQM as precursor to ISO 9000 and vice versa in petrochemical industries. These two topics have got a good exposure and encouragement. The petrochemical industries find it very important to obtain them. This has grown popularity due to its advantages. The ISO 9000 is considered as a quality model. The implementation of TQM creates a competitive advantage. The implementation will also improve the participation and dedication of the employees in the petrochemical industry. The employees work as a team for the implementation activities and thus cooperation increases. The implementation of TQM and ISO 9000 helps provide quality to the customers. It helps in meeting the needs of the customers. Assessing the quality can be done by quality standards like ISO 9000. It determines whether the work is done in an efficient way or not. Total quality management can be implemented through ISO 9000. Implementing ISO 9000 as a precursor can be of advantage to the implementation of TQM, because it will help increase the profit and thereby keep their regular customers. ISO 9000 can be used as a tool to TQM in petrochemical industries. ISO 9000 will help the process of production when the quality management process is at the starting stage. ISO 9000 has nowadays become a need for the petrochemical industries because it helps to improve productivity. It helps in organizing the process of production. It also helps in improving the performance of the company. The advantages can be listed as follows; It improves the productivity of the organization from top to bottom. It is s systematic and well structured approach that can be used for enhancing customer satisfaction. It is an improvement method by which the deviations can be reduced. It helps in delivering the product and services t the required quality expected by the customer. It helps in reducing a higher level of wastages.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Implementation of ISO 9000 offers a strong foundation for the efficient implementation of TQM. The implementing of ISO 9000 as a precursor of TQM helps to create an understanding of the requirements of the customers. It enhances the involvement of the employees in the TQM process. It increases the relationship with the suppliers. The profit of petrochemical can be increased by the implementing ISO 9000.  Ã‚   Disadvantages of implementing TQM as a precursor to ISO 9000 and vice versa: In petrochemical industries, ISO 9000 and TQM are the integral components of the successful running of every organization. When a petrochemical industry is considered there exist a lot of difficulties regarding the implementation of TQM as a precursor to ISO 9000 and vice versa. Petrochemical industry plays a major role for the economic growth of a country. Nowadays petrochemical products are used for several purposes of our day to day life. While implementing TQM as a precursor to ISO 9000, few problems arise in connection with customer satisfaction, because without the incorporation of TQM and ISO 9000 does not bring enough customer satisfaction. They consider that ISO 9000 certification is the main thing which shows the manufacturers ability to produce high quality products. Also implementation of TQM as a precursor to ISO causes difficulties for entering into international market because ISO 9000 certification is an integral component of petrochemical industry to enter an interna tional market. In order to get ISO 9000 systematic planning is necessary and it will help bring faith from the part of the customer and also to produce good quality products. ISO 9000 certification is the major thing which is used to compete with the international markets. Also, implementing TQM as a precursor to ISO 9000 will cause difficulties to maintain quality improvement. So, it is better to follow ISO 9000 standards before TQM in every organization. But, there exist few disadvantages also for this type of implementation. In order to achieve maximum profit from a business, the major thing is to fulfil the needs of the customer and TQM approach gives more consideration to customer satisfaction. So, by implementing ISO 9000 first will cause few problems regarding customer satisfaction. Even there is quality in the products for the satisfaction of the customer ISO 9000 and TQM certification is essential. It is better to implement ISO 9000 before TQM because in the newest version of ISO 9000 it includes several features of TQM. Therefore the implementation of TQM before ISO 900 is really wastage of time and money. There are some problems regarding the implementation of the TQM as the precursor to ISO 9000 and some of that problems are Initially higher cost of production as more is recognized as rejects. Cost of training personnel, cost of implementing stages of feedback for employees (Voters 2010). The implementation of this TQM standard requires more cost because there need to bring total changes in the organization such as for the training of the employees, implementation of the latest technologies etc. it is difficult to alter the practice of the longtime workers to the TQM procedures and ISO 9000 procedures. while the organization are running smoothly with their existing functional procedures as the customers demands for the ISO 9000 and TQM standard certification the company owners are forced to change to these standard procedures. Even though an organization maintains quality in their products and excellent workers the customer does not agree the quality without the certification of these standards. The petrochemical products are used for several purposes so the certification of ISO 9000 and TQM for every product seems to be very difficult because sometimes the assurance of the quality of a product requires much more money than the money required for the manufacturing of that product. There are also some difficulties in implementation the ISO 9000 as the precursor. To finish the procedures of ISO 9000 registration it takes several months. The 1996 Quality Systems Update survey indicated that it took businesses an average of 15 months to move from the early stages of the process to passage of the final audit, and that processes of 18-20 mo nths or even longer were not that uncommon (ISO 9000 2010). It is really wastage of time and effort to the business owners moreover wastage of time to other employees in the organization. Frequently companies will have a customer who demands that they be ISO 9000 certified to continue doing business. NOW the company has the choice of losing a customer or implementing ISO 9000. Either way money is lost in the short term (Nurre, Gunaman De- Almeida 2000, p.5). Conclusion and Recommendations: The concepts of TQM and ISO play a significant role in improving the quality management system within an organization. It is evident that the adoption of these two concepts has enabled the petrochemical industries to overcome all the problems they were facing before their implementation. The challenges faced by the petrochemical industries can be solved effectively by implementing these concepts. The issues related to the product or service quality must be handled by the experts in the organization. The overall performance of this sector can be improved by framing a standard for each activity that are carried out in an organization, so that the deviations occurring in each activity can be identified easily and appropriate measures can be taken in time.

Characters in Shakespeares Hamlet Essay -- William Shakespeare

Shakespeare has always had the gift of creating characters each with their own unique facets that, in combination, make for a play full of multi-dimensional characters. In the case of Shakespeare’s perhaps most famous play Hamlet, a more prominent role is held by the defining traits of each of the more important characters. When looked at from a more in-depth perspective one would find that many of these traits are revealed through an inference inherent to their speech. In Hamlet’s case his most eloquent dialogue shows his analytical mind, but also poses a question over Hamlet’s confidence: with circumstances of precarious matter, does he lack the confidence to be decisive, procrastinating, and knowingly so, with the important decisions required of him, or is it simply that this time is spent reasoning things to their most full extent so that his course of action proves to be the correct one. With respect to Claudius there is an extreme confidence in his cunning and deceitful craft as he often speaks with a willful hypocrisy. Also, it will be shown that Claudius has a dominantly selfish personality, manipulating people in order to use them to achieve his own ends. And, lastly, Gertrude, who possesses an enigmatic persona, is one who makes difficult the task of interpreting her motives and mindset with any real certainty. Hamlet, a man with much intelligence, proves himself to be both logical and analytical. However, as he has sometimes revealed throughout the play, he procrastinates with what can seem to be over-analysis where the politics of the situation prove to be rather delicate, and yet when he is dealing with relatively inconsequential matters he can show as much confidence as Laertes. Through the readers’ eyes it is oft... ...ference and interpretation of each character’s manner and style of speaking. In the play Hamlet, much was learned simply by reading between each line of dialogue, and giving each line perhaps a few seconds more thought than is usual. Shakespeare filled each of his works with brilliant nuances that made necessary giving each word of each line further consideration, but what was most intriguing about this play in particular was that the reader was not only able to gain insight into the minds its characters, but also the mind of Shakespeare himself. It leaves much food for thought when one ceases to take things at face value, but instead delves into the numerous and immensely profound layers of meaning that have reinforced the words of Shakespeare for hundreds of years and for hundreds more to come. Works Cited Shakespear, William. Hamlet. Don Mills HBJ, 2009

Metaphor and Translation Essay

Abstract Metaphor has been widely discussed within the discipline of Translation Studies, predominantly with respect to translatability and transfer methods. It has been argued that metaphors can become a translation problem, since transferring them from one language and culture to another one may be hampered by linguistic and cultural differences. A number of translation procedures for dealing with this problem have been suggested, e. g.  , substitution (metaphor into different metaphor), paraphrase (metaphor into sense), or deletion. Such procedures have been commented on both in normative models of translation (how to translate metaphors) and in descriptive models (how metaphors have been dealt with in actual translations). After a short overview of how metaphor has been dealt with in the discipline of Translation Studies, this paper discusses some implications of a cognitive approach to metaphors for translation theory and practice. Illustrations from authentic source and target texts (English and German, political discourse) show how translators handled metaphorical expressions, and what effects this had for the text itself, for text reception by the addressees, and for subsequent discursive developments. # 2004 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Conceptual metaphor; English; French; German; Metaphorical expression; Translation Studies 1. Introduction Metaphor, as a typical feature of communication, presents a challenge for translation too, both for the practising translator and for its treatment in the discipline of Translation Studies. In the literature on translation, the two main issues have been, ? rstly, the translatability of metaphors, and secondly, the elaboration of potential translation * Tel. : ? 44-121-359-3611Ãâ€"4224; fax: ? 44-121-359-6153. ? E-mail address: c. schaeffner@aston. ac. uk (C. Schaffner). 0378-2166/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. pragma. 2003. 10. 012 1254 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 procedures. In most cases, the argumentation is based on a traditional understanding of metaphor as a ?  gure of speech, as a linguistic expression which is substituted for another expression (with a literal meaning), and whose main function is the stylistic embellishment of the text. It is only recently that a cognitive approach to metaphor has been applied to Translation Studies. In this article, I want to illustrate on the basis of some examples from the language pair, English and German, what a cognitive approach could offer to the description of metaphors in translation. The discussion proceeds primarily from the perspective of the discipline of Translation Studies. In taking this approach, it is also possible to explore how the cross-linguistic and cross-cultural perspective of translation can contribute to metaphor theory. 2. The treatment of metaphor as a translation problem Translation and interpreting as activities have existed for many centuries, and there is a long tradition of thought and an enormous body of opinion about translation (cf. Delisle and Woodsworth, 1995; Robinson, 1997). But it was not until the second half of this century that Translation Studies developed into a discipline in its own right (cf. Holmes, 1988; Snell-Hornby et al.  , 1992). Although at ? rst conceived as a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, it has taken on concepts and methods of other disciplines, notably text linguistics, communication studies, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, pragmatics, comparative literature, and recently, cultural studies. Instead of a uni? ed theory, we have a multiplicity of approaches, each of which focuses on speci? c aspects of translation, looks at the product or the process of translation from a speci? c angle, and uses speci? c ? terminology and research methods (cf. Chesterman, 2000; Gentzler, 1993; Schaffner,  1997b; Stolze, 1994). The phenomenon of metaphor has regularly been of concern to translation scholars who have argued about problems of transferring metaphors from one language and culture to another. The arguments brought forward need to be seen within the context of a heterogeneous discipline, i. e. , with respect to the speci? c model of translation within which the scholars approached their topic. I will therefore begin by giving a brief overview of the most prominent approaches to translation and provide a short account of how metaphor has been dealt with in the discipline of Translation Studies. Linguistics-based approaches de? ne translation as transferring meanings, as substituting source language (SL) signs by equivalent target language (TL) signs (e. g. , Catford, 1965). The source text (ST) is to be reproduced in the TL as closely as possible, both in content and in form. Since the aim of a translation theory has often been seen as determining appropriate translation methods, language systems (as langues) have been studied in order to ? nd the smallest equivalent units (at the lexical and grammatical levels) which can be substituted for each other in an actual text (as parole). Textlinguistic approaches de? ne translation as source text induced target text (TT) production (Neubert, 1985). The text itself is treated as the unit of translation, and it is stressed that a text is always a text in a situation and in a culture. Therefore, consideration needs to be given to situational factors, genre or text-typological conventions, addressees’ knowledge and expectations, and text functions. The central notion of equivalence is now ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1255 applied to the textual level, and de? ned as communicative equivalence, i. e., a relationship between the target text and the source text in which TT and ST are of equal value in the respective communicative situations in their cultures. Functionalist approaches de? ne translation as a purposeful activity (cf. Nord, 1997), as ? ? transcultural interaction (Holz-Manttari, 1984), as production of a TT which is appropriate for its speci? ed purpose (its skopos) for target addressees in target circumstances (cf. Vermeer’s ‘skopos theory’, e. g. , Vermeer, 1996). The actual form of the TT, its textual– linguistic make-up, is therefore dependent on its intended purpose, and not (exclusively) on the structure of the ST. The yardstick for assessing the quality of the target text is, thus, its appropriateness for its purpose, and not the equivalence to the source text. More modern linguistic approaches acknowledge that translation is not a simple substitution process, but rather the result of a complex text-processing activity. However, they argue that translations need to be set apart from other kinds of derived texts, and that the label ‘translation’ should only be applied to those cases where an equivalence relation obtains between ST and TT (House, 1997; Koller, 1992). Equivalence is probably the most controversial notion in Translation Studies. Some translation scholars reject this notion outright, arguing that by retaining ‘equivalence’ in the vocabulary, translation scholars sidestep the issue that ‘‘it is difference, not sameness or transparency or equality, which is inscribed in the operations of translation’’ (Hermans, 1998: 61). This view is also expressed in current approaches that are inspired by postmodern theories and Cultural Studies, which argue that texts do not have any intrinsically stable meaning that could be repeated elsewhere (e. g. , Arrojo, 1998; Venuti, 1995). For Venuti, the target text should be ‘‘the site where a different culture emerges, where a reader gets a glimpse of a cultural other’’ (Venuti, 1995: 306). In the course of its development, the focus of Translation Studies has, thus, shifted markedly from linguistic towards contextual and cultural factors which affect translation. Major inspiration for the development of the discipline has also come from research conducted within the framework of Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), aiming at the description of translating and translations ‘‘as they manifest themselves in the world of our experience’’ (Holmes, 1988: 71). Research here includes studying the socio-historical conditions in which translations are produced and received, identifying regularities in translators’ behaviour and linking such regularities to translation norms which operate both in the social event and the cognitive act of translation (cf. Toury, 1995). DTS and postmodern theories thus de? ne translation as norm-governed behaviour (Toury, 1995) and/or a cultural political practice (Venuti, 1996: 197). The contrast between normative models (what a TT should look like) and descriptive models  (what TTs actually do look like) is also evident in the discussions about metaphor translation. Metaphor has traditionally been described as an individual linguistic phenomenon (a metaphorical expression) which can become a translation problem. Most scholars use the same terms as those applied in semantic theories (cf. Goatly, 1997), i. e. , terms like ‘image’ or ‘vehicle’ for the conventional referent, ‘object’ or ‘topic’ for the actual unconventional referent, and ‘sense’, ‘ground’, or ‘tenor’ for the similarities and/or analogies involved. Newmark (1981) explains these terms on the basis of the example rooting out the faults as follows: the object, that is, the item which is described by the metaphor, is faults. The image, that is, the item in terms of which the object is described, 1256 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 is rooting up weeds. The metaphor, that is, the word(s) used in the image, is rooting out, and the sense, which shows in what particular aspects the object and the image are similar, is (a) eliminate; and (b) do so with tremendous personal effort. He argues that in translating this ?  metaphor, a verb such as eliminer in French, or entfernen in German, would not do, ‘‘unless the phrase was of marginal importance in the text’’ (Newmark, 1981: 85). These arguments re? ect the two main concerns in Translation Studies, the translatability of metaphors, and procedures to transfer them from a source language into a target language. In equivalence-based approaches, the underlying assumption is that a metaphor, once identi? ed, should ideally be transferred intact from SL to TL. However, cultural differences between SL and TL have often been mentioned as preventing such an intact transfer. For Dagut (1976: 22), a metaphor is an ‘‘individual ? ash of imaginative insight’’, a creative product of violating the linguistic system, and as such, highly culture speci? c. Its main function is to shock its readers by creating an aesthetic impact. In Dagut’s view, the effect of shock is to be retained in a translation, and if linguistic and cultural factors hinder this effect, then he maintains that the metaphor cannot be translated. For illustration, he uses Hebrew metaphors translated into English, and shows, for example, how Hebrew metaphors are closely connected to Biblical stories and thus culture speci?  c (as in the case of the verb form ne’ekad—‘bound’, i. e. , metaphorically, ‘bound like Isaac for the sacri? ce’). Most authors agree that the image in the ST cannot always be retained in the TT (e. g. , because the image that is attached to the metaphor is unknown in the TL, or the associations triggered by the SL metaphor get lost in the TL), and subsequently several translation procedures have been suggested as alternative solutions to the ideal of reproducing the metaphor intact. For example, van den Broeck (1981: 77) lists the following possibilities. 1. Translation ‘sensu stricto’ (i.e. , transfer of both SL tenor and SL vehicle into TL). 2. Substitution (i. e. , replacement of SL vehicle by a different TL vehicle with more or less the same tenor). 3. Paraphrase (i. e. , rendering a SL metaphor by a non-metaphorical expression in the TL). Van den Broeck provides these modes of metaphor translation as a tentative scheme, i. e. , as theoretical possibilities. By linking them to categories of metaphor (lexicalized, conventional, and private metaphors) and to their use and functions in texts, he presents some hypotheses about translatability. In the tradition of DTS, van den Broeck sees the task of a translation theory not in prescribing how metaphors should be translated, but in describing and explaining identified solutions. He therefore argues that detailed descriptive studies of how metaphors are actually translated would be required to test the suggested modes and his hypotheses. In contrast to van den Broeck’s descriptive framework, Newmark’s translation procedures are presented in a prescriptive way, with the aim of providing principles, restricted rules, and guidelines for translating and translator training. He distinguishes between ? ve ? types of metaphors: dead, cliche, stock, recent, and original. In his discussion of stock metaphors, he proposes seven translation procedures, which have frequently been taken up in the literature. These procedures are arranged in order of preference (Newmark, 1981: ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1257 87–91). Newmark’s focus is on the linguistic systems, and his arguments can be linked to the substitution theory of metaphor (cf. Goatly, 1997: 116f). (All examples given here for illustration are Newmark’s own examples). 1. Reproducing the same image in the TL, e. g. , golden hair—goldenes Haar. 2. Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL image which does not clash with the ? TL culture, e. g. , other fish to fry—d’autres chats a fouetter. ? 3. Translating metaphor by simile, retaining the image, e. g. , Ces zones cryptuaire ou s’ ? ? elabore la beaute. —The crypt-like areas where beauty is manufactured. According to Newmark, this procedure can modify the shock of the metaphor. 4. Translating metaphor (or simile) by simile plus sense (or occasionally a metaphor plus ? sense), e. g.  , tout un vocabulaire molieresque—a whole repertoire of medical quackery ` such as Moliere might have used. Newmark suggests the use of this compromise solution in order to avoid comprehension problems; however, it results in a loss of the intended effect. 5. Converting metaphor to sense, e. g. , sein Brot verdienen—to earn one’s living. This procedure is recommended when the TL image is too broad in sense or not appropriate to the register. However, emotive aspects may get lost. 6. Deletion, if the metaphor is redundant. 7. Using the same metaphor combined with sense, in order to enforce the image. Toury (1995: 81ff) points out that these translation procedures start from the metaphor as identified in the ST, and that the identified metaphor (the metaphorical expression) is treated as a unit of translation. He argues that from the perspective of the TT, two additional cases can be identified: the use of a metaphor in the TT for a non-metaphorical expression in the ST (non-metaphor into metaphor), and the addition of a metaphor in the TT without any linguistic motivation in the ST (zero into metaphor). This view deals with metaphor not as a translation problem (of the ST), but as a translation solution. In his descriptive study of ? the translation of verb metaphors (for the language pair Swedish and German), Kjar (1988) included such an inverse analysis as well, but did not go much beyond a presentation of statistical findings. Kurth’s (1995) findings, too, are derived from a descriptive analysis of actual translations. Based on the interaction theory of metaphor (cf. Goatly, 1997: 117ff) and on scenes and frames semantics as applied to translation (Vannerem and Snell-Hornby, 1986), he illustrates how several metaphors interact in the construction of a macro-scene. In German translations of works by Charles Dickens, he shows which TL frames have been chosen for a SL scene (e. g. , ‘humanizing’ objects by anthropomorphical metaphors) and what the consequences are for the effect of the text (e. g. , weakening of an image). 3. Metaphors from the cognitive linguistics perspective: consequences for Translation Studies The cognitive approach to metaphor, largely initiated by Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By (1980), can contribute new insights into translation as well. This approach, however, is only gradually taking root within Translation Studies (e. g. , Al? Harrasi, 2000; Cristofoli et al. , 1998; Schaffner, 1997a, 1998; Stienstra, 1993). The main 1258 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 argument of the cognitive approach is that metaphors are not just decorative elements, but rather, basic resources for thought processes in human society. Metaphors are a means of understanding one domain of experience (a target domain) in terms of another (a source domain). The source domain is mapped onto the target domain, whereby the structural components of the base schema are transferred to the target domain (ontological correspondences), thus also allowing for knowledge-based inferences and entailments (epistemic correspondences). Such models are largely encoded and understood in linguistic terms. In cognitive linguistics, the term ‘metaphor’ is used to refer to this conceptual mapping (e. g. , ANGER IS THE HEAT OF A FLUID IN A CONTAINER),1 and the term ‘metaphorical expression’ is used to refer to an individual linguistic expression that is based on a conceptualization and thus sanctioned by a mapping (e.g. , ‘I gave vent to my anger’). Establishing the conceptualization on which a particular metaphorical expression is based is relevant to translation, too. Such a perspective provides a different answer to the question of the translatability of metaphors. Translatability is no longer a question of the individual metaphorical expression, as identi? ed in the ST, but it becomes linked to the level of conceptual systems in source and target culture. In what follows, some implications of  such a cognitive approach to metaphors for translation theory and practice are illustrated. On the basis of authentic source and target texts, I describe how translators have handled metaphorical expressions. This description is linked to a consideration of the effects of such translation solutions on the text and its reception by the addressees. The examples come from political texts, and the languages involved are primarily English and German. The focus of this paper is the description and explanation of identi? ed translation solutions. It is thus related to DTS, but, in contrast to van den Broeck, for example, I do not pretend to test pre-established translation schemes or hypotheses. My starting point is authentic TT structures for metaphorical expressions in STs. That is, the description is predominantly product-oriented,2 with the explanation being linked to text, discourse, and culture. In my conclusion, I point out some ways in which the discipline of Translation Studies can contribute to metaphor theory. 4. Metaphor and text In the following two examples, we have an identical metaphorical expression in the ? German ST, Brucke (bridge), but it has been handled differently in the TTs (both extracts come from speeches by the former German Chancellor Helmut Kohl): 1 In this metaphor, ontological correspondences are, for instance, ‘the container is the body’, ‘the heat of fluid is the anger’; epistemic correspondences are then, for instance, ‘when the fluid is heated past a certain limit, pressure increases to the point at which the container explodes’ (source) and ‘when anger increases past a ? certain limit, pressure increases to the point at which the person loses control’ (cf. Kovecses, 1986: 17f). 2 A process-oriented analysis, i. e. , an analysis of the actual cognitive processes in the translator’s mind during the translation act, would add valuable insights as well. Moreover, such a perspective would also test the validity of Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) theory. For example, one could test whether translators, as text receivers and interpreters, actually do access conceptual metaphors when constructing interpretations of metaphorical expressions (cf. Glucksberg, 2001), and how this might influence the decision-making for the TT structure. Research into translation processes (e. g. , most recently Danks et al., 1997; Kussmaul, 2000; Tirkkonen-Condit ? and Jaaskelainen, 2000) has not yet been conducted primarily with metaphors in mind. ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1259 ? ? Wir wollen die Brucke uber den Atlantik auf allen Gebieten—Politik und Wirtschaft, Wissenschaft und Kultur—festigen und ausbauen. We aim to strengthen and widen the transatlantic bridge in all spheres, in politics and commerce, science and culture. 3 ? So sind die amerikanischen Soldaten ein wichtiger Teil der Freundschaftsbrucke ? uber den Atlantik geworden. (literally: . . . an important component of the translatlantic bridge). The American forces in Germany are thus an important component of transatlantic friendship. (emphasis are mine) How (if at all) can traditional translation procedures account for these different solutions? Applying Newmark’s translation procedures, we could say that in the ? rst case, the procedure is metaphor for metaphor (i. e. , reproduction of the image), whereas in the second case the metaphor has been deleted. These texts would be examples of what Newmark calls ‘authoritative texts’, and in his guidelines to translators he states that in such texts, metaphors should be preserved. As a second criterion to guide the translator’s decision, Newmark suggests the importance of the metaphor in the text. The ? rst extract comes from Kohl’s speech on receiving the Honorary Freedom of the City of London (18 February 1998), the second one from his speech at the ceremony at Tempelhof Airport to commemorate the Berlin Airlift on the occasion of the visit of President Clinton (14 May ? 1998). The Berlin Airlift is known in German as Luftbrucke (literally: ‘bridge in the air’). In the London speech, the 50th anniversary of the Airlift is shortly mentioned, but it is not the ? actual topic of the speech. In the Tempelhof speech, however, the Luftbrucke is the actual topic, and it is used frequently in the short text, thus contributing to the structure of the text. Based on these considerations, Newmark’s recommendation presumably would be: metaphor into same metaphor in the ? rst case, but metaphor into sense in the second case. If we describe this authentic example on the basis of a cognitive approach, ? metaphorical expressions such as Brucke are considered ‘‘in the light of the metaphorical concept of which they are manifestations, and not as individual idioms to be ?tted into the target text as well as they can’’ (Stienstra, 1993: 217). In this case, one and the same historical event was conceptualized in different ways by different cultures, using different metaphors. The source domain of the English ‘airlift’ is a TRANSPORT domain, focusing on the medium (air), the action, and involving a direction (from–to). In the German ? Luftbrucke, the source domain is an ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURE, focusing on the ? medium and the structural object. As said above, the anniversary of the Luftbrucke is the actual topic of Kohl’s Tempelhof speech; but is the bridge indeed the dominant metaphor in the text as a whole? In other words: what is the underlying conceptual metaphor by which ? the metaphorical expression Freundschaftsbrucke is sanctioned? A closer analysis of the text above shows that the argumentation is structured around the central idea of American–German friendship. In the ? rst ? ve paragraphs, Kohl gives an ? account of the historical event itself and of its political signi? cance. Luftbrucke occurs six 3 Translators are normally not identified by name in the case of translations being produced for the German government. 1260 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 times in these ? rst paragraphs, each time translated as Airlift, since each time it is used as a proper name. Kohl then links the historical aspect to the development of American– German friendship over the last 50 years, both at a personal level and at the governmental ? level. And it is here that he speaks of the Freundschaftsbrucke (exploiting the bridge image as a rhetorical means for the argumentative function of a political speech): [. . . ] in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten haben rund 7 Millionen amerikanische Soldaten bei uns in Deutschland Dienst getan. Gemeinsam mit ihren Familien waren es etwa 15 Millionen Amerikaner, die fernab ihrer Heimat, ihren Beitrag zur ? Erhaltung von Frieden und Freiheit leisteten [. . . ]. Im taglichen Kontakt mit ihren ? ? deutschen Nachbarn haben sie viele personliche Beziehungen geknupft. Diese wurden ? [. . . ] eines der Fundamente der engen Freundschaft zwischen unseren Volkern. Es ? ? ? sind ja nicht zuletzt die alltaglichen Erfahrungen und Eindrucke, die personlichen und menschlichen Begegnungen, die in diesen Jahrzehnten die deutsch-amerikanischen ? Beziehungen mit Leben erfullt haben. So sind die amerikanischen Soldaten ein ? ? wichtiger Teil der Freundschaftsbrucke uber den Atlantik geworden. 4 What we can see from such an analysis is that Kohl’s speech is structured around a metaphorical understanding of friendship: Germany and the USA are friends. Seeing the state metaphorically as a person seeking friendship involves a metaphorical conception of closeness. Thus, all references in Kohl’s speech to Kontakte, Beziehungen, Begegnungen (contacts, a dense network of personal ties, personal encounters) can be described as metaphorical expressions that are sanctioned by the conceptual metaphors A STATE IS A PERSON and INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS (see also Gibbs’ comments on primary metaphors (Gibbs et al., this issue)). One of the means which allows friends who live far apart to experience close personal contact, is a bridge. A bridge links two endpoints, here the USA and Germany (ontological correspondence), thus providing an opportunity for mutual contact (epistemic correspondence). ? From such a conceptual perspective, we can say that rendering Freundschaftsbrucke as transatlantic friendship does not really constitute a case of metaphor deletion. The conceptual metaphors A STATE IS A PERSON and INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS are present in both ST and TT. It is these conceptual metaphors that are relevant for the structure of the text and its overall function as a political speech. At the macro-level, the conceptual metaphors are identical in ST and TT, although at the micro-level a speci? c ? metaphorical expression in the ST (Freundschaftsbrucke) has not been rendered in exactly the same way in the TT. However, transatlantic friendship in the TT can equally be characterized as a metaphorical expression which is justi? ed by the same conceptual metaphors. 4 The authentic English translation of this passage reads as follows: Over the past decades some seven million American servicemen have been stationed in Germany. Together with their families, that makes about 15 million Americans who, in this country far from home, have helped, [. . . ] to safeguard peace and liberty. In their day-to-day contacts with Germans the American community here has built up a dense network of personal ties central to the close friendship between our two nations. It is not least this wealth of personal encounters, these everyday impressions and  experiences which make German–American relations a meaningful part of daily life. The American forces in Germany are thus an important component of transatlantic friendship. ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 1261 If we take a cognitive approach, a ? rst aspect of metaphors in translation can therefore be described as follows: not all individual manifestations of a conceptual metaphor in a source text are accounted for in the target text by using the same metaphorical expression. This argument is in line with one of Stienstra’s (1993) ? ndings. On the basis of several Bible translations into English and Dutch, she illustrates that the conceptual metaphor YHWH IS THE HUSBAND OF HIS PEOPLE, which is a central metaphor of the Old Testament, was preserved at the macro-level, even if speci? c textual manifestations were changed or not accounted for in each individual case. There is another example in Kohl’s Tempelhof speech which provides insights into strategic uses of metaphors and their treatment in translation. In elaborating on German– American partnership in the world of today and tomorrow, Kohl says: ? Unser Ziel, Herr Prasident, ist es, den Bau des Hauses Europa zu vollenden. Dabei wollen wir, da? unsere amerikanischen Freunde in diesem Haus auf Dauer ihre feste Wohnung haben. (literally: [. . . ] We want our American friends to have a permanent apartment in this house. Our goal is to complete the construction of the European house—with a permanent right of residence for our American friends—and enable the family of European nations to live together side by side in lasting peace. (italics are mine) From a cognitive perspective, we can say that the metaphorical expressions Haus Europa, Haus, and feste Wohnung are all sanctioned by the underlying conceptual metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE, which is an example of an ontological metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). Whereas in the ST, the structural elements have been lexicalized, the TT has made the entailments of the source domain explicit; that is, an apartment ensures a right of residence, and these are epistemic correspondences. Both ST and TT remain within the conceptual metaphor of a house, while the additional information in the TT  (‘‘and enable the family of European nations to live together side by side in lasting peace’’) can be seen as elaborating on this metaphor, thus also providing a conceptual link to the metaphor INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS which structures Kohl’s speech. Identifying metaphors and describing target text pro? les is a legitimate research aim for a translation scholar. An additional question concerns the causes and effects of particular translations (cf. Chesterman, 1998). I will illustrate this ? rst, by reference to the Haus Europa again, and then by commenting on the effects of a speci? c translation solution (fester Kern—hard core). Such an analysis needs to put the text into its historical context, accounting for its function, its addressees, etc. Metaphor is, thus, no longer a translation phenomenon of one particular text, but becomes an intertextual phenomenon. 5. Metaphor as an intertextual phenomenon The metaphorical expression Haus Europa ? gured prominently in the discourse of Helmut Kohl in the 1990s, speci? cally with reference to issues of European integration. Actually, the metaphor of the common European house was introduced into political discourse in the mid-1980s by the then leader of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev. As a 1262 ? C. Schaffner / Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2004) 1253–1269 re? ection of the ‘new political thinking’ in the Communist Party under Gorbachev, the conceptual metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE was to represent the idea of all European states, East and West of the ‘Iron Curtain’, living and working together in peaceful coexistence. The base schema for Gorbachev’s metaphor was a multi-story apartment block with several entrances, in which several families live, each in their own ? ats (i. e. , the prototypical house in bigger Russian towns). In his own discourse, Gorbachev hardly elaborated on the structural elements of a house, but most frequently stressed the rules and norms for living together in this common house. The rules of the house have to guarantee that every family can live their own lives, without interference from their neighbours, so that the common house is protected and kept in order (cf. Chilton, 1996; ? Schaffner, 1996). The Russian metaphorical expression dom was rendered as house in English5 and as Haus in German political discourse in reporting on Gorbachev’s new political ideas and aims, which were not readily welcomed in Western European countries. But more often than being rejected outright, the metaphor EUROPE IS A HOUSE was taken up and conceptually challenged. In British political discourse (especially in the second half of the 1980s), the structural aspects dominated in the argumentation, determined by features of the prototypical English house. That is, there are references to detached and semi-detached houses, to fences, and to questions such as who is to live in which room or on which ? oor.

No Child Left Behind Act Essays - Education Reform, Free Essays

No Child Left Behind Act Essays - Education Reform, Free Essays No Child Left Behind Act is a document adopted on 2001 that is associated with the improvement of elementary and secondary education in the USA. It is obvious that students are different and their potential is different too. It is impossible to create a standard system of education that will satisfy every student. The US Congress decided to invent the best system that would be useful to all students. No Child Left Behind Act is based on the idea that every child has the right to receive education and that it is impossible to treat children with different potential equally. This Act provided states with the right to set the local standards of education. For example, if a school cannot boast of excellent results of its students, it has the right to set its own minimum level of knowledge that is acceptable in this state. Years ago every school paid attention to the smartest students. Weaker students did not have a chance to learn the same information, because of their weaker potential. In simple words, the system of education focused on gifted students, while other students felt neglected. The Act changed this situation and provided schools with a chance to make their own standards of education that will be useful to weaker students too. Gifted students should receive extra homework assignments that are not connected with the ordinary educational process. No Child Left Behind Act is a quite a controversial document, because teachers and experts criticize it severely. They say that this Act does not solve the existing problems of education and it causes harm to gifted students who stay unnoticed and discouraged. No Child Left Behind Act is good topic for discussion. Students are able to research this problem in detail and share their opinion with their teachers. If you need to complete a good term paper about No Child Left Behind Act, you should pay attention to the profound analysis of this document. It is possible to observe it logically and systematically. You should describe every important point and aspect of this Act and explain it to your teacher. Furthermore, you should analyze it objectively demonstrating its advantages and disadvantages. Finally, you should summarize this subject wisely and present your own understanding of its importance. The Internet is the best helper with term paper writing, because it provides students with high-quality articles that can be useful for writing. One is able to look through a free college term paper sample on No Child Left Behind Act and understand how to organize his assignment effectively. He will be able to borrow the style and manner of writing to construct a successful paper professionally.

Differences in wealth and life expectancy of the countries of the world Essay Example

Differences in wealth and life expectancy of the countries of the world Essay Example Differences in wealth and life expectancy of the countries of the world Essay Differences in wealth and life expectancy of the countries of the world Essay For my mathematics coursework I have been given the task of finding the differences in wealth and life expectancy of the countries of the world. To my aide I shall have the World Factbook Data which was given to me by my maths teacher. The World Factbook Data contains the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita; this is the economic value of all the goods and services produced by an economy over a specified period. It includes consumption, government purchases, investments, and exports minus imports. This is probably the best indicator of the economic health of a country. It is usually measured annually. Another thing the data contains is the Life expectancy at birth. Life expectancy is called the average life span or mean life span, in this case of the countries or continents. This informs me of the average age a person in the specified country is likely to like to. Using this data I shall try to prove hypotheses that I shall personally predict before carrying out the investigation. For my investigation I shall be using varieties of different ways to presenting my data and results. I shall use graphs, charts as well as tables to make the data easier to read and understand for the reader. This would enable me also to keep organised and follow what I have to do. To develop my work I shall use very reliable as well as advanced methods to prove my hypotheses. These shall consist of Spearmans rank correlation coefficient, box plots, standard deviation aswell as histograms. Bearing my hypotheses in mind, I think that it would be they are irrelevant to my hypotheses and I shall gain no evidence or support from them inappropriate for me to use averages such as the mode or the range as I feel. My Hypotheses : I have chosen two hypotheses. My first Hypotheses is linked directly to my task whereas my second hypotheses is an extension task to develop my work. My hypotheses consist of: * The wealth and life expectancy of a continent is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. I believe this happens worldwide. * Females generally tend to live longer than males worldwide. Method I shall acquire a systematically method. This will enable my work to be organised and easy to read. First, and foremost, I shall gather all the data that is presented before me. As my hypotheses are based on worldwide data I believe it is essential for me to use all the data. Once I have obtained the data I shall extract the data that will be used for my investigation. For this I shall use the stratified sampling method. This method is chosen because it is a fair and unbiased method. Also stratified sampling would give me an even spread of the whole continent, not compromise of the highest or lowest sets of data (as this would give me inaccurate results of the continents). Once obtaining the data specified I shall then separately, for each continent, put the data onto a table. I have chosen not to opt for putting the data in one big table, although my hypotheses are both related to worldwide information not separate continents, as this would narrow my results. Another advantage of putting the data onto separate tables for each continent is that I can then see which countries and continents prove my hypotheses and which countries and continents go against my hypotheses. After having my data separated into continents I shall first draw a scatter graph for each continent. This is to get me started and show me how spread out the data roughly is. Stratified Random Sampling Since it is generally impossible to study the entire population (every country in every continent) I must rely on sampling to acquire a section of the continent to perform my investigation. I believe it is important that the group selected be representative of the continent, and not biased in a systematic manner. For example, a group comprised of the wealthiest countries in a given continent probably would not accurately reflect the opinions of the entire continent. For this reason I have employed stratified random sampling to achieve an unbiased sample. Using this method shall: a) Give me the estimates of the countries needed for each continent b) Make selecting the data fair, as there will be no biasness. c) Give me a more accurate result. Firstly I used stratified sampling to find the number of countries needed from each continent, for my investigation. I deployed the formula: Number of countries in continent à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½60 Total number of countries in The World Factbook Database I multiplied the answer by sixty because that is the number that I wish to reduce the data to. I believe sixty to be the right number as it is not too big or too small and I am capable of working with that number. Results: Asia: 54/235à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½60=14 Africa: 57/235à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½60=15 Europe: 48/235à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½60=12 Oceania: 25/235à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½60=6 North America: 37/235à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½60=9 South America: 14/235à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½60=4 I then randomly selected the amount presented to me for each continent. I put the countries and their given data in a graph. In some cases I had to randomly reselect a country as the previously selected country didnt have sufficient data for me to include it in my investigation. Also for Cyprus I had to add both the Greek Cypriot area and the Turkish Cypriot area to give me the totals for the GDP-per capita for Cyprus. Data Tables Asia Countries GDP per capita ($) Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Population Life Expectancy (years) Afghanistan 700 42.27 42.66 42.46 Bangladesh 1,900 74.37 80.02 61.71 Cyprus 24,800 75.11 79.92 77.46 Gaza Strip 600 70.31 72.94 71.59 Jordan 9,000 75.59 80.69 78.06 Malaysia 4,300 69.29 74.81 71.95 Maldives 3,900 62.41 65.01 63.68 Mongolia 1,800 61.97 66.48 64.17 Oman 13,100 70.66 75.16 72.85 Qatar 3,300 70.90 76.04 69.71 Saudi Arabia 21,500 73.26 77.30 73.40 Syria 11,800 68.47 71.02 75.23 United Arab Emirates 23,200 72.51 77.60 74.99 West Bank 800 71.14 74.72 72.88 Mean 8,621 68.45 72.46 69.30 Data Tables Africa Countries GDP per capita ($) Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Population Life Expectancy (years) Burundi 600 42.73 44.00 43.36 Cape Verde 1,400 66.83 73.54 70.14 Cote dIvoire 1,400 40.27 44.76 42.48 Egypt 4,000 68.22 73.31 70.71 Gabon 5,500 54.85 58.12 56.46 Liberia 1,000 46.90 48.99 47.93 Libya 6,400 74.10 78.58 76.28 Madagascar 800 54.19 58.96 56.54 Morocco 4,000 68.06 72.74 70.35 Mozambique 1,200 37.83 36.34 37.10 Niger 800 42.38 41.97 42.18 South Africa 10,700 44.39 43.98 44.19 Sudan 1,900 56.96 59.36 58.13 Swaziland 4,900 39.10 35.94 37.54 Zambia 800 35.19 35.17 35.18 Mean 3,027 51.47 53.72 52.57 Data Tables Europe Countries GDP per capita ($) Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Population Life Expectancy (years) Belarus 6,100 62.79 74.65 68.57 Bosnia and Herzegovina 6,100 69.82 75.51 72.57 Faroe Islands 22,000 75.60 82.51 79.05 Finland 27,400 74.73 81.89 78.24 Guernsey 20,000 77.17 83.27 80.17 Macedonia 6,700 72.45 77.20 74.73 Malta 17,700 76.51 80.98 78.68 Man, Isle of 21,000 74.80 81.70 78.16 Norway 37,800 76.64 82.01 79.25 Portugal 18,000 74.06 80.85 77.35 Slovakia 13,300 70.21 78.37 74.19 Sweden 26,800 78.12 82.62 80.30 Mean 18,575 73.58 80.13 76.77 Data Tables Oceania Countries GDP per capita ($) Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Population Life Expectancy (years) American Samoa 8,000 72.05 79.41 75.62 Australia 29,000 77.40 83.27 80.26 French Polynesia 17,500 73.29 78.18 75.67 Palau 9,000 66.67 73.15 69.82 Papua New Guinea 2,200 62.41 66.81 64.56 Vanuatu 2,900 60.64 63.63 62.10 Mean 11,433 68.74 74.08 71.34 Data Tables North America Countries GDP per capita ($) Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Population Life Expectancy (years) Anguilla 8,600 73.99 79.91 76.90 Aruba 28,000 75.64 82.49 78.98 Belize 4,900 65.11 69.86 67.43 Costa Rica 9,100 74.07 79.33 76.63 Dominica 5,400 71.48 77.43 74.38 El Salvador 4,800 67.31 74.70 70.92 Netherlands Antilles 11,400 73.37 77.95 75.60 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 2,900 71.54 75.21 73.35 Trinidad and Tobago 9,500 66.86 71.82 69.28 Mean 9,400 71.04 76.52 73.72 Data Tables South America Countries GDP per capita ($) Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Population Life Expectancy (years) Argentina 11,200 71.95 79.65 75.70 Guyana 4,000 60.12 64.84 62.43 Suriname 4,000 66.77 71.55 69.10 Venezuela 4,800 71.02 77.32 74.06 Mean 6,000 67.47 73.34 70.32 Data Table Result * The wealth and life expectancy of a continent is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. I believe this happens worldwide. * Females generally tend to live longer than males worldwide. Summary Continent Mean GDP per capita ($) Mean Male Life Expectancy Mean Female Life Expectancy Mean Population Life Expectancy (years) Europe 18,575 73.58 80.13 76.77 Oceania 11,433 68.74 74.08 71.34 North America 9,400 71.04 76.52 73.72 Asia 8,621 68.45 72.46 69.30 South America 6,000 67.47 73.34 70.32 Africa 3,027 51.47 53.72 52.57 Worldwide 9,509 66.79 71.71 69.00 Hypotheses 1 This data supports my first Hypotheses that wealth and life expectancy of a continent is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. This is seen because the higher a continents mean GDP per capita the higher its mean Population Life Expectancy has been. This is with the exception of South America. This goes against my hypotheses. This does not prove my hypotheses incorrect as I need more sufficient evidence. Hypotheses 2 This hypothesis has already been proven correct because on in every continent the mean Male Life Expectancy is always lower then the mean Female Life Expectancy. Scatter Graphs A scatter graph is a graphical summary of bivariate data (two variables X and Y), usually drawn before working out a linear correlation coefficient or fitting a regression line. In scatter graphs every observation is presented as a point in (X,Y)-cordinate system. The resulting pattern indicates the type and strength of the relationship between the two variables. A scattergraph will show up a linear or non-linear relationship between the two variables and whether or not there exist any outliers in the data. Scatter graph is a graph made by plotting ordered pairs in a coordinate plane to show the correlation between two sets of data. The reason for me choosing the scatter graph as a way of displaying my data is because the scatter graph is easy to read and understand. Also you can visibly see the correlation which is not possible with other methods. Reading a scatter graph: * A scatter graph describes a positive trend if, as one set of values increases, the other set tends to increase. * A scatter graph describes a negative trend if, as one set of values increases, the other set tends to decrease. * A scatter graph shows no trend if the ordered pairs show no correlation. Interpreting a Scatter graph High positive correlation Perfect positive Low correlation Perfect positive High positive correlation High negative correlation Scatter Graphs Asia Scatter Graphs Africa Scatter Graphs Europe Scatter Graphs Oceania Scatter Graphs North America Scatter Graphs South America Scatter Graph Results * The wealth and life expectancy of a continent is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. I believe this happens worldwide. * Females generally tend to live longer than males worldwide. Only hypotheses one was attempted with this data as hypothesis two could not be preformed with this graph. It would have had no extra information and would have been too time consuming. Hypotheses 1 This data shows the data table in a visual form. Personally, it is easier to see that continents that have less GDP capita also have a lower life expectancy. The most visible are the countries that have been circled around. These countries are a lot worse then the rest of the countries. These countries can actually be seen to be totally different compared to the rest of the world. Histograms In statistics, a histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies. That is, a histogram is the graphical version of a table which shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several or many specified categories. The categories are usually specified as non overlapping intervals of some variable. .Histogram is a specialized type of bar chart. Individual data points are grouped together in classes, so that you can get an idea of how frequently data in each class occur in the data set. High bars indicate more frequency in a class, and low bars indicate fewer frequency. One of the main reasons for me choosing histograms is because it provides an easy-to-read picture of the location and variation in a data set. The histogram is another way of visually displaying your data. This makes it more appealing than a set of tables. Interpreting Histograms If the columns in a histogram are all the same width then you can compare the frequencies of the class by comparing the heights of the columns. The column with the largest area indicates the modal class. The height of a column is like averaging out the frequency over all the values in the class. Height = Frequency Class interval The taller the column is the greater the average frequency for the values in that class is. Histograms Asia Population Life Expectancy (years) Frequency Mid point Frequency Density 41-50 1 45.5 0.11 51-60 0 55.5 0.00 61-70 4 65.5 0.44 71-80 9 75.5 1.00 Total 14 1.56 Histograms Africa Population Life Expectancy (years) Frequency Mid point Frequency Density 31-40 3 35.5 0.33 41-50 5 45.5 0.56 51-60 3 55.5 0.33 61-70 0 65.5 0.00 71-80 4 75.5 0.44 Total 15 1.67 Histograms Europe Population Life Expectancy (years) Frequency Mid point Frequency Density 61-70 1 65.5 0.11 71-80 9 75.5 1.00 81-90 2 85.5 0.22 Total 12 1.33 Histograms Oceania Population Life Expectancy (years) Frequency Mid point Frequency Density 61-70 3 65.5 0.33 71-80 2 75.5 0.22 81-90 1 85.5 0.11 Total 6 0.67 Histograms North America Population Life Expectancy (years) Frequency Mid point Frequency Density 61-70 2 65.5 0.22 71-80 7 75.5 0.78 Total 9 1.00 Histograms South America Population Life Expectancy (years) Frequency Mid point Frequency Density 61-70 2 65.5 0.22 71-80 2 75.5 0.22 Total 4 0.44 Histogram Results * The wealth and life expectancy of a country is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. I believe this happens worldwide. * Females generally tend to live longer than males worldwide. Population Life Expectancy (years) Frequency Mid point Frequency Density 31-40 3 35.5 0.33 41-50 6 45.5 0.67 51-60 3 55.5 0.33 61-70 12 65.5 1.33 71-80 33 75.5 3.67 81-90 3 85.5 0.33 Total 60 6.67 This was extended work to give me more information indirectly concerning hypotheses one. This data shows me that the modal group for population life expectancy worldwide is the 71-80 age range. Unsurprisingly the economically worst off continent, Africa, was the only continents to have any country with a Population Life Expectancy of below 40. On the other hand Asia, not being the second worst economically continent, alongside with Africa, had countries with Life Expectancy lower then 60. To summarise so far in my investigations only South America has not fitted in with my first hypotheses. Standard Deviation Standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of statistical dispersion. It is a measure of the degree of dispersion of the data from the mean value. It is simply the average or expected variation around an average. Standard deviation would show me how spread out the values in the sets of data are. It is defined as the square root of the variance. This means it is the root mean square (RMS) deviation from the average. It is defined this way in order to give us a measure of dispersion that is: I have chosen this method because although the scatter graph and histograms do show population distribution they do not give a precise and exact answer. This can easily be obtained by using standard deviation. * A non-negative number, and * Has the same units as the data. Interpreting Standard deviation Interpreting standard deviation is quite easy to read. A large standard deviation indicates that the data points are far from the mean and a small standard deviation indicates that they are clustered closely around the mean. In this case 0.9 is a large standard deviation and 0.1 is a small standard deviation. The formula for standard deviation is; ?à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½xà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ -x à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ V ?à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Standard Deviation Asia Male Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 42.27 68.45 -26.18 685.24 74.37 68.45 5.92 35.08 75.11 68.45 6.66 44.39 70.31 68.45 1.86 3.47 75.59 68.45 7.14 51.02 69.29 68.45 0.84 0.71 62.41 68.45 -6.04 36.45 61.97 68.45 -6.48 41.95 70.66 68.45 2.21 4.90 70.90 68.45 2.45 6.02 73.26 68.45 4.81 23.16 68.47 68.45 0.02 0.00 72.51 68.45 4.06 16.51 71.14 68.45 2.69 7.25 Variance 68.30 Standard Deviation 8.26 Female Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 42.66 72.46 -29.80 887.74 80.02 72.46 7.57 57.23 79.92 72.46 7.47 55.73 72.94 72.46 0.48 0.24 80.69 72.46 8.24 67.82 74.81 72.46 2.36 5.55 65.01 72.46 -7.44 55.43 66.48 72.46 -5.97 35.70 75.16 72.46 2.71 7.32 76.04 72.46 3.59 12.85 77.30 72.46 4.85 23.47 71.02 72.46 -1.44 2.06 77.60 72.46 5.15 26.47 74.72 72.46 2.27 5.13 Variance 88.77 Standard Deviation 9.42 Standard Deviation Asia Population Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 42.46 69.30 -26.84 720.16 61.71 69.30 -7.59 57.54 77.46 69.30 8.16 66.66 71.59 69.30 2.29 5.26 78.06 69.30 8.76 76.81 71.95 69.30 2.65 7.05 63.68 69.30 -5.62 31.54 64.17 69.30 -5.13 26.27 72.85 69.30 3.55 12.63 69.71 69.30 0.41 0.17 73.40 69.30 4.10 16.85 75.23 69.30 5.93 35.22 74.99 69.30 5.69 32.42 72.88 69.30 3.58 12.85 Variance 78.67 Standard Deviation 8.87 Standard Deviation Africa Male Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 42.73 51.47 -8.74 76.33 66.83 51.47 15.36 236.03 40.27 51.47 -11.20 125.37 68.22 51.47 16.75 280.67 54.85 51.47 3.38 11.45 46.90 51.47 -4.57 20.85 74.10 51.47 22.63 512.27 54.19 51.47 2.72 7.42 68.06 51.47 16.59 275.34 37.83 51.47 -13.64 185.96 42.38 51.47 -9.09 82.57 44.39 51.47 -7.08 50.08 56.96 51.47 5.49 30.18 39.10 51.47 -12.37 152.93 35.19 51.47 -16.28 264.93 Variance 154.16 Standard Deviation 12.42 Female Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 44.00 53.72 -9.72 94.43 73.54 53.72 19.82 392.94 44.76 53.72 -8.96 80.23 73.31 53.72 19.59 383.87 58.12 53.72 4.40 19.38 48.99 53.72 -4.73 22.35 78.58 53.72 24.86 618.15 58.96 53.72 5.24 27.49 72.74 53.72 19.02 361.86 36.34 53.72 -17.38 301.97 41.97 53.72 -11.75 138.00 43.98 53.72 -9.74 94.82 59.36 53.72 5.64 31.84 35.94 53.72 -17.78 316.03 35.17 53.72 -18.55 344.00 Variance 215.16 Standard Deviation 14.67 Standard Deviation Africa Population Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 43.36 52.57 -9.21 84.85 70.14 52.57 17.57 308.66 42.48 52.57 -10.09 101.84 70.71 52.57 18.14 329.01 56.46 52.57 3.89 15.12 47.93 52.57 -4.64 21.54 76.28 52.57 23.71 562.10 56.54 52.57 3.97 15.75 70.35 52.57 17.78 316.08 37.10 52.57 -15.47 239.36 42.18 52.57 -10.39 107.98 44.19 52.57 -8.38 70.25 58.13 52.57 5.56 30.90 37.54 52.57 -15.03 225.94 35.18 52.57 -17.39 302.46 Variance 182.12 Standard Deviation 13.50 Standard Deviation Europe Male Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 62.79 73.58 -10.79 116.32 69.82 73.58 -3.76 14.10 75.60 73.58 2.02 4.10 74.73 73.58 1.16 1.33 77.17 73.58 3.60 12.92 72.45 73.58 -1.13 1.27 76.51 73.58 2.94 8.61 74.80 73.58 1.22 1.50 76.64 73.58 3.07 9.39 74.06 73.58 0.48 0.24 70.21 73.58 -3.37 11.32 78.12 73.58 4.55 20.66 Variance 16.81 Standard Deviation 4.10 Female Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 74.65 80.13 -5.48 30.03 75.51 80.13 -4.62 21.34 82.51 80.13 2.38 5.66 81.89 80.13 1.76 3.10 83.27 80.13 3.14 9.86 77.20 80.13 -2.93 8.58 80.98 80.13 0.85 0.72 81.70 80.13 1.57 2.46 82.01 80.13 1.88 3.53 80.85 80.13 0.72 0.52 78.37 80.13 -1.76 3.10 82.62 80.13 2.49 6.20 Variance 7.93 Standard Deviation 2.82 Standard Deviation Europe Population Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 68.57 76.77 -8.20 67.27 72.57 76.77 -4.20 17.65 79.05 76.77 2.28 5.19 78.24 76.77 1.47 2.16 80.17 76.77 3.40 11.55 74.73 76.77 -2.04 4.17 78.68 76.77 1.91 3.64 78.16 76.77 1.39 1.93 79.25 76.77 2.48 6.14 77.35 76.77 0.58 0.33 74.19 76.77 -2.58 6.67 80.30 76.77 3.53 12.45 Variance 11.60 Standard Deviation 3.41 Standard Deviation Oceania Male Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 72.05 68.74 3.31 10.93 77.40 68.74 8.66 74.94 73.29 68.74 4.55 20.67 66.67 68.74 -2.07 4.30 62.41 68.74 -6.33 40.11 60.64 68.74 -8.10 65.66 Variance 36.10 Standard Deviation 6.01 Female Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 79.41 74.08 5.33 28.46 83.27 74.08 9.19 84.55 78.18 74.08 4.11 16.85 73.15 74.08 -0.92 0.86 66.81 74.08 -7.27 52.78 63.63 74.08 -10.45 109.10 Variance 48.77 Standard Deviation 6.98 Standard Deviation Oceania Population Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 75.62 71.34 4.28 18.33 80.26 71.34 8.92 79.60 75.67 71.34 4.33 18.76 69.82 71.34 -1.52 2.31 64.56 71.34 -6.78 45.95 62.10 71.34 -9.24 85.35 Variance 41.72 Standard Deviation 6.46 Standard Deviation North America Male Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 73.99 71.04 2.95 8.70 75.64 71.04 4.60 21.15 65.11 71.04 -5.93 35.18 74.07 71.04 3.03 9.17 71.48 71.04 0.44 0.19 67.31 71.04 -3.73 13.92 73.37 71.04 2.33 5.42 71.54 71.04 0.50 0.25 66.86 71.04 -4.18 17.48 Variance 12.39 Standard Deviation 3.52 Female Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 79.91 76.52 3.39 11.48 82.49 76.52 5.97 35.61 69.86 76.52 -6.66 44.39 79.33 76.52 2.81 7.88 77.43 76.52 0.91 0.82 74.70 76.52 -1.82 3.32 77.95 76.52 1.43 2.04 75.21 76.52 -1.31 1.72 71.82 76.52 -4.70 22.11 Variance 14.38 Standard Deviation 3.79 Standard Deviation North America Population Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 76.90 73.72 3.18 10.12 78.98 73.72 5.26 27.68 67.43 73.72 -6.29 39.55 76.63 73.72 2.91 8.47 74.38 73.72 0.66 0.44 70.92 73.72 -2.80 7.83 75.60 73.72 1.88 3.54 73.35 73.72 -0.37 0.14 69.28 73.72 -4.44 19.70 Variance 13.05 Standard Deviation 3.61 Standard Deviation South America Male Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 71.95 67.47 4.49 20.12 60.12 67.47 -7.34 53.95 66.77 67.47 -0.69 0.48 71.02 67.47 3.56 12.64 Variance 21.80 Standard Deviation 4.67 Female Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 79.65 73.34 6.31 39.82 64.84 73.34 -8.50 72.25 71.55 73.34 -1.79 3.20 77.32 73.34 3.98 15.84 Variance 32.78 Standard Deviation 5.73 Standard Deviation South America Population Life Expectancy Mean Deviation Deviationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 75.70 70.32 5.38 28.92 62.43 70.32 -7.89 62.29 69.10 70.32 -1.22 1.49 74.06 70.32 3.74 13.97 Variance 26.67 Standard Deviation 5.16 Standard Deviation Results * The wealth and life expectancy of a country is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. I believe this happens worldwide. * Females generally tend to live longer than males worldwide. Continents Asia Africa Europe Oceania North America South America Male Life Expectancy 8.26 12.42 4.10 6.01 3.52 4.67 Female Life Expectancy 9.42 14.67 2.82 6.98 3.79 5.73 Population Life Expectancy 8.87 13.50 3.41 6.46 3.61 5.16 Hypotheses 1 This data does mainly concentrate on Hypotheses two but it can also be relevant to Hypotheses one as well. The continent with the highest GDP- per capita, Europe is also the continent which on average is closer to its mean then any other country. Also the continent with the lowest GDP- per capita, Africa is also the continent which on average is furthest away from its mean then any other continent. Hypotheses 2 This data proves that females have longer Life Expectancy then males, without a doubt. The females live so longer that they are further away from the mean then the males. This is because females are above the mean for each and every continent, unlike the males who are always below the mean. This table can be misleading in the concept that it seems as if men in Europe have a Longer Life Expectancy then women in Europe. This is not true. The fact is that both men and women have high Life Expectancy in Europe; (with the women averaging higher then the men again).This results leads to a high Population Life Expectancy which is close to both of them. In this case the women are closer to it, but they still contain a higher Life Expectancy. Spearmans Rank Correlation Spearmans rank correlation is used to compare two given sets of data. You use the formula p = 1- 6?dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ n(nà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½-1) d is the difference between the GDP-per capita and Population life expectancy. n is the number of countries in the specified continent. To work out the value of p for the results of the GDP-per capita and the Population life expectancy you add another two rows to the table. The first row is for the value of d (difference) and the second row is for the value of dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (differenceà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½). Interpreting Spearmans rank correlation The value of p will always be between -1 and +1. ________________________________________________________________________ -1 0 1 If the value of p is close to 0 there is almost no correlation. If the value of p is close to -1 there is strong negative correlation. If the value of p is close to -0.5 there is weak negative correlation. If the value of p is close to 1 there is strong positive correlation. If the value of p is close to 0.5 there is weak positive correlation. Spearmans Rank Correlation Results * The wealth and life expectancy of a country is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. I believe this happens worldwide. * Females generally tend to live longer than males worldwide. The Spearmans rank correlation tables show the following results about the correlation between the GDP-per capita and the Population life expectancy of a continent: Continent Results Correlation between GDP-per capita and the Population life expectancy of continent Asia. 0.7010989 Medium positive correlation Africa 0.499452321 Weak positive correlation Europe 0.8023324 Strong positive correlation Oceania 0.8857143 Strong positive correlation North America 0.55 Weak positive correlation South America 0.50 Weak positive correlation Looking at my data it is visible that all the continents have positive correlation. This proves my hypotheses, that all the continents have a positive correlation between the GDP-per capita and the Population life expectancy of a continent. The accuracy of my hypotheses can be further developed. Instead of saying that there is a positive correlation between the GDP-per capita and the Population life expectancy worldwide, I could further develop this. Looking at my data I can tell the strength of the correlation of each specific continent. Strong Accuracy Intermediate Accuracy Weak Accuracy Europe Asia. North America Oceania South America Africa Conclusion * The wealth and life expectancy of a country is linked and is likely to have a strong positive correlation. I believe this happens worldwide. * Females generally tend to live longer than males worldwide. My first hypothesis was proven correct. I realised that the continent do contain a correlation between the wealth and life expectancy of a continent. However for most of my data South America did seem to be an exception. I believe this to be because of the size of data for this continent. Although stratified random sampling was accurate it did not work in these circumstances. Another method I could have used was to give each continent the same number of countries to represent it. Only four countries were chosen for South America, I do not think that this was a sufficient enough number to represent a whole continent. I say this because I believe that the chosen method was mainly all about luck, which countries are chosen to represent a continent. This would give a biased reading. To overcome this problem I would definitely have to increase my data. For this reason I think that although my hypotheses was correct and if I was to try the same investigation again with a data size of seventy instead of sixty my hypotheses would be more successful as well as more accurate. For my second hypotheses there were no such problems. My hypothesis was not one hundred percent accurate because as always there were a few exceptions. The exceptions consisted of four countries four countries all from Africa. These countries had a higher male Life Expectancy then the female Life Expectancy. These countries are listed below. Countries Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Mozambique 37.83 36.34 Niger 42.38 41.97 South Africa 44.39 43.98 Swaziland 39.10 35.94 Zambia 35.19 35.17 Apart from these few countries, (which just prove that men can live longer then women!) my hypotheses was correct, because worldwide females tend to live longer then males. Looking at my investigation I feel in order for this data to be more accurate I would certainly need to have some minor adjustments, like the size of my data. I feel this did affect my results as the size of the data resulted in me being restricted from significant data that was not chosen due to my method of sampling. If this investigation was done again I would actually stick with the same methods, however I would expand my database and also use an even wider variety of representing my data (for example I could use the cumulative frequency graph). This would enable me to have a more accurate set of results.